Parda in Islam

PARDA (VEIL) IN THE LIGHT OF QURAN AND SUNNAH ABSTRACT The cold war began between the religions and the best subject for west is women to create uncertainty between religions. They are continuously hitting Muslim women with the weapon of Human Rights. From last couple of years the big issue is revolving in west and it create many mess is Parda(veil). The say that parda is human rights violation and Parda humiliates the women dignity. But the Noble Quran says Parda (veil) creates respectful environment for women. If we read bible it also taught women the importance of Parda(veil).In Old Testament we read Rebekah also looked up and saw Isaac. She got down from her camel  and asked the servant, â€Å"Who is that man in the field coming to meet us? â€Å"He is my master,† the servant answered. So she took her veil  and covered herself. (Genesis: 24:64-65) In New Testament And every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head–it is just as t hough her head were shaved. If a woman does not cover her head, she should have her hair cut off; and if it is a disgrace for a woman to have her hair cut or shaved off, she should cover her head. 1 Corinthians: 11:5-6) Islam the religion of peace stresses the relationship between body and mind. The ultimate goal of Parda is righteousness of the heart because in covering the body one shields the heart from impurities. Women of Islam wear Parda and loose clothing to fulfill the command of Allah Subhan wa tala. It encourages them to be modest and not to dress in a manner that attracts men. The Parda (veil) can take many forms, The Hijab The Niqaab The Burqa In first hijab, generally refers to covering only head and neck, leaving face uncovered.This covering may have many styles but its main purpose is to cover the hairs properly. In Niqaab is generally understood as clothing that covers the face as well as head, with the eyes showing. The Burqa is a complete and proper form of Parda w hich covers the body of women from head to toe. This form of Parda (veil) is seen in many region of Islamic world. It may have many different styles and according to the cultural and traditional influence. Key Words: Islam, Parda(veil), Quran, Hadith(Sunna) Islam: Islam is not a new religion, but the same truth that Allah revealed through all His prophets to every people.Muslims follow a religion of peace, mercy, and forgiveness, and the majority has nothing to do with the extremely grave events that have come to be associated with their faith. All the prophets sent by Allah brought the same message, i. e. believing in the oneness of Allah and the prophet Mohammad (Sal-Allaho-Alay-hay-Wasal-lam) as his last messenger. We, Muslims, believe in the Bible as the word of God and that it’s not in its exact and right form. We believe that Old Testament, Muslims call it Torat, was revealed to Prophet Moses (Musa) and New Testament, Muslims call it Injeel, was revealed o Prophet Jesus (Isa) peace be upon them. Since they were changed by people Allah sent the last testament, that is, the Holy Quran revealed to Prophet Mohammad (Sal-Allaho-Alay-hay-Wasal-lam) and it’s been 1400 years and not even a vowel of the Quran has been changed. It’s in its exact and perfect form. Christianity is closer to Islam than any other religion. We don’t believe in Jesus Christ (May peace be upon him) as Son of God but believe in him as a mighty messenger of Allah. We believe in his miraculous birth. There is one chapter in the Quran in the name of the mother of Jesus Christ (P.B. U. H) as â€Å"Chapter Mary†. http://www. cometoislam. com/aboutislam. htm Parda (veil): Hijab is the term used by many Muslim women to describe their head cover that may or may not include covering their face except their eyes and sometimes also covering one eye. The Arabic word Hijab can be translated into veil or yashmak. Other meanings for the word Hijab include screen, cover (ing), mantle, curtain, drapes, partition, division, and divider. http://www. pakideas. com/node/161 Socialists oppose both approaches, for us it is the right of every woman to wear or not to wear the veil.The state and the religious right have no right to interfere in the personal lives of individuals. Every woman has the right to choose. Most Muslims think that it is wrong to force women to remove the veil, but for some it is not wrong to force women to wear the veil. Socialists oppose a ban on the veil but they also oppose the forced wearing of the veil. This debate is mainly focused on Muslim communities living in Europe. But very few things have been said about Muslim women of the so-called Islamic countries. ( http://www. socialistworld. net/doc/2554)Quran: The Quran is a complete record of the exact words revealed by Allah through the Angel Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad (Sal-Allaho-Alay-hay-Wasal-lam). It’s the principal source of every Muslim’s faith and prac tice. It deals with all subjects that concern us as human beings; wisdom, doctrine, worship, and law. But its basic theme is the relationship between Allah and His creatures. At the same time the Quran provides guidelines for a just society, proper human conduct and equitable economic principles. Apart from the Quran, Muslims also refer to the life of the Prophet Muhammad (Sal-Allaho-Alay-hay-Wasal-lam). http://www. cometoislam. om/quran. htm Hadith: Hadeeth means the words, actions, approval or attributes that have been narrated from the Messenger (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him). A hadeeth may either confirm things that are mentioned in the Qur'aan, such as prayer, zakaah, etc. , or it may give details of things that are mentioned in the Qur'aan in general terms, such as the numbers of rak'ahs in each prayer, the thresholds for paying zakaah, the details of Hajj, etc. It may also explain rulings which are not mentioned in the Qur'aan, such as the prohibition on being ma rried to a woman and her (paternal or maternal) aunt at the same time.Allaah revealed the Qur'aan to His Messenger Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) and commanded him to explain it to the people, as He said (interpretation of the meaning): â€Å"And We have also sent down unto you (O Muhammad) the Dhikr [reminder and the advice (i. e. the Qur'aan)], that you may explain clearly to men what is sent down to them, and that they may give thought† [al-Nahl 16:44] http://wiki. answers. com/Q/What_is_Hadees-e-Nabawi PARDA (VEIL) IN THE LIGHT OF QURAN AND SUNNAH â€Å"O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments.That is more suitable that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and Merciful†. (33:59) In west Muslim women are not allowed to use Hijab (PARDA) because they think that Hijab is a symbol of female segregation. But if we see, in ma ny Muslim societies wearing Hijab (PARDA) is not very common and mostly women refuse it without any solid reason. If we once again read those verses of Quran which are given in the beginning of this article, how great these Qur’anic verses are, along with their implied meanings of lofty and honorable orientations made clear to the nations in this regard.We notice amongst the measures taken in this respect that Allah commands His Prophet (S. A. A. W) to enjoin his wives, the mothers of believers and the daughters. In these verses Allah demands women to use a big piece of cloth which at least covers her body from head to toe. There is a contradiction between the two schools of thought of Islam that is it necessary to cover the face or not? Some say it is necessary to cover the face and the others say it’s not, but I emphasize here that the permissible Hijab should have certain characteristics and conditions through which the Muslim women can be distinguished from others. The best form of Hijab as Allah says in the Quran is the piece of cloth which covers the whole body of woman starting from the head to the toe of her feet. Allah states in Quran, â€Å"Draw their veils all over the bodies (when abroad)†(33:59) Allah also says, â€Å"And to draw their veils over their bosoms† (24:31) And says, â€Å"And stay in your houses, and do not display your selves like That of the former time of ignorance†(33:33) Further Allah addressed the believers to wear Hijab: â€Å"say to the believing women†, as well as in the verses â€Å"and the believing women†.From the point of view of Hadith, it was mentioned that: some women came to see Sayeda Ayesha R. A, they entered Ayesha’s room while they had put on fine dresses. However Ayesha said:, â€Å" if you are believing women then such should not be the suitable dress of the believing women, but if you are not you can enjoy wearing it. Two things can be interpreted from the above incident, one is if someone claimed that she is a believer then she must obey Allah’s order and must wear Hijab and if she is a non- believer then it’s up to her. Then the second thing is what type of Hijab? Allah says in Quran to cover your body with a garment, no special kind or type of Hijab is mentioned but Allah only commands in the Holy Quran to do Hijab, now it’s up to the believers how they cover their bodies, as in our sub-continent most women use â€Å"BURKA† as it is according to the customs that prevail in our society. In verse no 33 of surah AL-AHZAAB Allah orders Muslim women to stay at home if they don’t have any duty outside and also not to show their parts of body, their jewelry and make over as they used to do in the past.Until now I have presented some Quranic and Hadith evidences in which Allah orders believing women to cover their bodies with Hijab (PARDA). ALLAH has clearly commanded women in the Holy Quran but what is t he reason that most women do not feel this obligation upon themselves. In my view its nothing but the strong influence of modernism and colonialism that still dominates our thoughts and actions but if we once again go through the Quran and Hadith I must say that the purpose of Hijab is to ensure that the modesty of a woman is protected and that any obscene and illicit intentions towards the woman are avoided.It is compulsory for Muslim women to wear Hijab or anything that covers the parts that can bring unwanted attention from the opposite sex. We come across many cases in the newspapers that women feel unsafe out in the markets etc. when they are alone, uneasiness is created by the opposite sex, and it is true and a big sin on part of men but if the same woman wears proper Hijab (PARDA) then the results will be different. Because Allah says in Quran do not show those parts of body which attract opposite sex, if women observe these commands then the results for sure would be differe nt because true is Allah and True is also His Prophet.Hijab is a sign of the completion of faith by a woman who wears it for fear of Allah and seeking HIS pleasure but not as a customary and habitual matter. The woman who covers herself will be covered with chastity, modesty and purity and all of these qualities are the integrated part of faith. In conclusion I would say that women in Islam should try seriously to be a nice symbol of representing the beautiful and desirable image of Islam by calling to Islam wherever they go, being the favored role model for their Muslim sisters, raising hereby the word of their lord, religion and the tradition of their beloved Prophet Mohammad S.A. A. W, high over anything and throwing disappointment on the enemy of Islam, and causing their oppressing plan to fail. And a sister who is in the west can use Hijab to present the beautiful Islamic Code. This would lead to the aforementioned benefits as well. In the end I say: praise to Allah, the cheris her and sustainer of the worlds, peace to all who follow guidance, and peace and blessing be upon the most honorable and noblest Prophet Mohammad peace and blessing be upon Him, upon His family and His followers. References (MOHAMMAD UMAR MUBARIK)

Impact of the British Victory in the Indian French War Essay

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Was Hitler a Weak Dictator between 1934-1939 Essay

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The Cold War Era Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Instructional Design Essay Example for Free

Instructional Design Essay The world is a place full of so many different professions that need people to train to be regarded as professionals of a specific area. Doctors, managers, engineers, drivers, teachers, professors, lecturers and so many other professionals are qualified because the people did some kind of training. The training offered by the relevant institutions were not just conducted without guidelines, there were and there are still guidelines showing what is required when one wants to become a qualified professional. These guidelines are implemented in a process that has the specific instructions developed in a systematic manner known as the instructional design. Instructional design is an out line of well organised specific instructions on a specific profession guiding trainers on how to produce quality education and profession in a learning environment (Teaching Center, 2004). An instructional design always have four major steps though different models have different ways of showing these steps. It always has the design and the analysis step, the implementation and the production step, the developing step, and the review and evaluation step (Teaching Center, 2004). Why would an institution look for this kind of a process? Performance of an organisation depends on the employees, and the skills these employees have must be of importance to an institution. Another issue is that no organisation or institution would like to have a bad reputation of producing low quality professional skills, institutions would work towards the standards required by the public. Instructional design helps quality skill and performance production (Whiddett and Hollyforde, 2003). Professional Development Professional development is the manner in which the skills a person requires to maintain a specific line of career are developed or maintained. It is usually offered through continued education and training. Professional development is always a role left to the human resource manager or professional trainers in development departments in the organization. Teachers, lecturers and other educational trainers also play a big role in the professional development. The teachers and education organization trainers offer professional skills to students under various fields of study or profession. They are therefore required to know the steps and instructional designs used for the development of students professionally as Graff et. al note in their book (2006). Professional development involves the formal kind of education for example university education, post secondary education or even polytechnic education that enables a person to obtain a certificate or a credential that will enable him/her to get employment and retain it due to the knowledge the person has gained. The process of professional development therefore involves teaching on the various topics of the profession and other training procedures like practicals and internships (Gaff et. al, 2006). A teacher is required to organise how this professional development will be done on his/her students over a given period of time. There are other ways that professional development could be done, for example personal coaching can lead to one gaining the relevant knowledge and required training for a certain profession. This is mostly done through professional development individual and informal programs. Professional development in a work place enhances the individual skills on the processes and tasks at work. These skills that can be improved are such as team management skills, effectiveness skills and the system of and organizations thinking skills. The task skills that can be enhanced by professional development are such as skills on training safety, applications on computer software and skills on customer services (Cindy et. al, 2000). Professional development can also be a choice of the already employed. In this situation the individual under the current occupation undergoes the relevant training to improve his/her skills on the specific profession. Examples of normally desired skills for this kind of professional development are; leadership skills for the managers and skills on specific training techniques on different professions for example the training skills on, metal work equipments, engineers, medical practitioners and many others. There are different requirements for different professions in professional development. The kind of training that a medical student undergoes is not the same as the kind of training an accounting student would undergo. The different fields require different knowledge, skills and internships. An example of a professional development is in the health care profession that involves the development of skills, knowledge and attitude of the students or the workers to ensure that they work effectively and confidently (Work Cover 2003). In order to gain the knowledge, skills and the attitude, the students or the health care workers have to be trained, mentored and supervised. Organisational structures have to be created and maintained as well to ensure team work in the medical field and support for the individuals (National Society, 1986). Another example of professional development is training of customers which is normally done by manufactures with new machines and would like to train their customers on how to use the machine. This is normally referred to as an after sales service that aims to prevent misuse of the equipment, technology or a system (National Society, 1986). Instructional Designs  There are so many definitions to an instructional design. An instructional design can be defined as an organised out line of a teachers or a trainers program on how professional development will be conducted or performed. It can also be referred to as a model developed for a competency based system. Another definition according to a learning and teaching center indicates that an instructional design is an effective transfer tool with instructions used by teachers and learners to organise communication technology (2004). The instructional design is organised based on the profession to be developed, the students to be trained, the time available for training, available resources and the requirements of the course of the specific profession. Why would there be instructional designs? Different professions have different requirements and standards of performance. One has to be a doctor or a manager after learning the skills required in those respective fields of study. The world is changing gradually and the skills required before are either improved or are no longer used, there are standards too to guide the kind of skills in a specific profession. In order to determine if a person has accomplished the requirements of a specific profession and has undergone the training, there has to be a guide to it. This guide is the instructional design. The designs have the instructions on what should be done on the competency systems, how it should be done, the time the system or the professional development requires and is according to the national standards of specific professional requirements. An example is in the information technology field. Information technology has experienced great changes in the technological methods. The technology professionals need a standard method to use in monitoring the performance of information technology firms to determine if they are up to competency standards. Performance of an organisation always depend on the type and quality of skills employed in the firm. Just as other firms need qualified personnel in their fields, its the same way the information technology requires qualified personnel too (Harless, 1970). Evaluating if an information technology firm has the competent group of professionals depends on the kind of training of the professionals. Professionals have to have undergone some kind of training with specified standards qualifying one as a professional. These standards are always integrated in the instructional design, therefore it is important that an instructional design guides the information technology professionals in the evaluation of the competency of the firms. Instructional designs offer guidelines to evaluation as well as guidelines to professional development (Harless1970). When the right guidelines are used in the evaluation of an organisation, the performance of the organisation is sure to be of standard. Instructional Design Models There are various models that can be used to develop instructional designs. Teachers and trainers select the models they find appropriate for the process of profession development. This discussion will only give more information on three models among the many models of instructional designs. The three models are; the ADDIE model, Carey and Dick model and rapid prototyping model. Other models though not thoroughly discussed here are the Rajans and Smiths model, and the Kemp, Rose and Morrisons model (Gilbert, 1978). Carey and Dick model This kind of model does not consider the instructions in an instructional model as separated components, but as a collective system. It out lines the various components of an instructional design. The system of an instructional design as argued by Dick and Carey has so many components as shown. The goals, analysis, contexts and learners, aims of performance, the materials of the instructional design, strategy to be used in the instructional design, design evaluation, design instruments and the process of revising the instructional design (Dick et. al. , 1978). The process of instructional design planning and development requires several steps as Carey and Dick indicate in their book (1978). The first step in instructional design creation is the identification of the goals of the instructional design that a trainer or teacher would like to accomplish with the students. The second step involves analysing the instructions of the design. A third step involves analysing the contexts and the learners then noting the performance aims. The next step in this process according to Dick and Carey is looking for the instruments of assessment and developing them. A strategy is developed, materials for professional development selected, instructions evaluated based on the formulated evaluation method and the instructions revised. The last important step done is the evaluation of the whole system of instructional design as noted by Dick et. al. The formulators of this model believe that the system of instructional design integrates all the components of the system to work together towards the goal of the design, which is desired student outcomes (1978).

Save girl Essay Example for Free

Save girl Essay Nearly half of India’s children are girls. However, the girl child is considered a lesser child in our society. Irrespective of class, caste and economic conditions, she is discriminated against and neglected at all the levels. This result in the denial of basic services required for her survival, welfare and development. The girl child is perceived as a burden to be passed on to another family. Her contribution in the household economy is not acknowledged. Various factors contribute towards the increase of offences/crime against women, including dowry deaths, rape, and eve-teasing, etc. The girl child has to be brought up with utmost care and regard by instilling in her the sense of pride and responsibility of nurturing the future generation. Faster development can only be possible by the human resources development. Therefore, our ultimate aim should be improving the lot of the girl child. I sincerely believe that those who do not respect the girl child. Nearly half of India’s children are girls. However, the girl child is considered a lesser child in our society. Irrespective of class, caste and economic conditions, she is discriminated against and neglected at all the levels. This result in the denial of basic services required for her survival, welfare and development. The girl child is perceived as a burden to be passed on to another family. Her contribution in the household economy is not acknowledged. Various factors contribute towards the increase of offences/crime against women, including dowry deaths, rape, and eve-teasing, etc. The girl child has to be brought up with utmost care and regard by instilling in her the sense of pride and responsibility of nurturing the future generation. Faster development can only be possible by the human resources development. Therefore, our ultimate aim should be improving the lot of the girl child. I sincerely believe that those who do not respect the girl childNearly half of India’s children are girls. However, the girl child is considered a lesser child in our society. Irrespective of class, caste and economic conditions, she is discriminated against and neglected at all the levels. This result in the denial of basic services required for her survival, welfare and development. The girl child is perceived as a burden to be passed on to another family. Her contribution in the household economy is not acknowledged. Various factors contribute towards the increase of offences/crime against women, including dowry deaths, rape, and eve-teasing, etc. The girl child has to be brought up with utmost care and regard by instilling in her the sense of pride and responsibility of nurturing the future generation. Faster development can only be possible by the human resources development. Therefore, our ultimate aim should be improving the lot of the girl child. I sincerely believe that those who do not respect the girl child

John Maynard Keynes Circular Flow Money Modern Macroeconomics Economics Essay

John Maynard Keynes Circular Flow Money Modern Macroeconomics Economics Essay Keynes John Maynard Keynes an economist from Britain. Keynes economic theory was based on circular flow of money. His views and ideas greatly affected modern macroeconomics and social liberalism. In Keynes theory, one persons spending goes towards anothers earnings, and when that person spends her earnings she is, in effect, supporting anothers earnings. This circle continues on and helps support a normal functioning economy. However, the advent of the  global financial crisis  in 2007 has caused a resurgence in Keynesian thought. Keynesian economics has provided the theoretical underpinning for the plans of President  Barack Obama  of the United States, Prime Minister  Gordon Brown  of the United Kingdom, and other global leaders to ease the  economic recession. JMK was given low marks for his views on inflation. His preoccupation with unemployment led him to ignore the issue of inflation completely. Since his death in 1946 his name has been linked to such inflationists slogans as full employment at any cost, and money doesnt matter. It is small wonder that he has been widely perceived as an inflationist and that our present inflation is often described as the legacy of Keynes. Democracy in Deficit : The Political Legacy of Lord Keynes Buchanan and Wagner Lord Keynes himself must bear substantial responsibility for our apparently permanent and perhaps increasing inflation. Without Keynes inflation would not be clear and present danger to the free society that it has surely now become. The legacy or heritage of Lord Keynes is the intellectual legitimacy provided to deficit spending inflation and the growth of government. In reality Keynes deplored inflation warned repeatedly of its evils and recommended restricted demand management policies to prevent it. Keynes strong aversion to inflation is evident in even his earliest work. It appears in his Indian Currency and Finance (1913). There he emphatically rejects the argument that a depreciating currency is advantageous to trade contending that any advantages derived from inflation are only temporary and that they occur largely at the expense of the community and therefore do not profit the country as a whole. In his Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919) he said Lenin is said to have declared that the best way to destroy the capitalist system was to debauch the currency. By continuing process of inflation governments can confiscate, secretly and unobserved an important part of the wealth of their citizens. By this method they not only confiscate but they confiscate arbitrarily and while the process impoverishes many it actually enriches some. He then proceeds to specify at least four ways that rapid inflation works to weaken the social fabric and to undermine the foundations of the capitalist free market system. First, unforeseen inflation he says results in a capricious and totally arbitrary rearrangement of riches that violates the principles of distributive justice. Besides its inequities inflation also renders business undertakings riskier and thereby turns the process of wealth getting into a gamble and a lottery. In generating risk and injustice, inflation strikes not only at security, but at confidence in the equity of the existing distribution of wealth. Second inflation violates long term arrangements based on the assumed stability of the value of money. In so doing, inflation disturbs contracts and upsets all permanent relations between debtors and creditors which form the ultimate foundation of capitalism. Third inflation generates social discontent and directs it against businessmen whose windfall profits are wrongly perceived to be the cause rather than the consequence of inflation. This discontent is exploited by governments which being many of them reckless as well as weak seek to direct on to a class known as profiteers the popular indignation against the more obvious consequences of their vicious methods. In other words governments actually responsible for causing inflation seek to shift the blame onto businessmen who consequently lose confidence in their place in society and become the easy victims of intimidation by government of their own making and a press of which they are proprietors. By making business a scapegoat and target of vilification and control inflation reinforces anti business attitudes and weakens support for what Keynes called the active and constructive element in the whole capitalist society. Finally inflation tends to breed such misguided remedies as price regulation and profiteer-hunting that may do more damage than the inflation itself. Keynes was especially critical of the tendency of governments to resort to price controls which in his view lead to resource misallocation and a reduced supply of goods thereby compounding inflationary pressures. Regarding the dis-incentives to real out-put occasioned by controls he said that the preservation of a spurious value for the currency by the force of law expressed in the regulations of prices contains in itself however the seeds of final economic decay and soon dries up the source of ultimate supply. For by freezing prices at what are likely to be disequilibrium levels controls constitute a system of compelling the exchange of commodities at what is not their real relative value and this not only relaxes production but finally leads to the waste and inefficiency of barter. Keynes concern with the dangers of inflation influenced his policy advice in the post war boom of 1920 when an outburst of inflation threatened the British Economy. Nowhere does Keynes express his concern for inflation more strongly that in the TRACT. There his chief fear is that inflation may retart capital formation and inhibit long term economic growth. He specifies at least three ways that this can happen. He notes first the inflationary disincentive to saving. By eroding the real value of past savings inflation diminishes the capacity of the investing class to save and destroy the atmosphere of confidence which is a condition of the willingness to save. With a smaller portion of national income flowing into saving and investment the rate of capital accumulation falls. And since according to Keynes The national capital must grow as fast as the national labour supply for the maintenance of the same standard of life it follows that a fall in capital growth below the required potential rate will lower the living standards. In short by discouraging saving and capital formation inflation may cause a fall in the aggregate capital/labour ratio and a corresponding drop in labour productivity and output per capita. A second factor regarding capital accumulation is the undercharging of the depreciation during inflation and the consequent inadequate provision for the replacement of worn-out capital. This occurs because depreciation charges on capital equipment are computed on the basis of original cost rather than replacements costs. These replacement costs rise with inflation. Thus when prices rise the depreciation charge calculated on the basis of the original cost are too small to replace the worn-out capital. The result may be an unintended depletion of the capital stock. In such condition said Keynes a country can even trench on existing capital or fail to make good its current depreciation. For it is one of the evils of a depreciating currency that it enables a community to live on its capital unawares. The increasing money value of the communitys capital goods obscures temporarily a diminution in the real quantity of stock. Yet a third adverse effect on capital formation, he noted, is the increased business risk resulting from inflation. For inflation adds to ordinary business risk the extra risk directly arising out of instability in the value of money. To compensate for this extra risk, businessmen add a risk premium to the rate at which they discount the future, and the higher discount rate discourages investment. The discouraging effects of inflation on saving, in-vestment, and growth were not the only inflationary evils described by Keynes in the Tract. Others in-cluded (1) the injustice and inequity resulting from inflationary redistributions of income and wealth, (2) the resort to spurious inflation remedies-e.g., price controls, excess profits taxes, profiteer-hunting and the like-remedies that constitute not the least part of the evils, often doing more harm than the inflation they are designed to cure, and (3) the social resentment and discontent produced by inflation. This resentment, when directed against the business class whose windfall profits are wrongly perceived as the cause rather than the consequence of inflation, works to discredit enterprise and to weaken support for the productive element of society-the prop of society and the builder of the future He notes that unanticipated inflation may temporarily stimulate economic activity by raising profits and profit expectations. Profits rise, he said, because wages and other costs lag behind rising prices during inflation. And with nominal wages lagging behind prices, real wages fall, thus inducing producers to step up their employment of labor. Likewise, the lagged adjustment of market interest rates to inflation and the consequent fall in the real cost of borrowing leads producers to expand their operations. Finally, inflation reduces the real burden of fixed charges, thereby giving a temporary fillip to profits and to economic activity. But Keynes insisted that any such stimulus would most likely be small and short-lived. Moreover it would constitute an undesirable overstimulation of industrial activ-ity requiring undue strain on capacity and a corre-sponding over-exertion of labor. For these reasons he judged the overall benefits to be minimal. Consequently, when Keynes weighed the benefits of inflation against the evils, he found the latter to far outweigh the former and accordingly came down heavily in favor of price stability. He summarized his case for price stability best when he declared that, because inflation is unjust and deflation is inexpedient . . . , both are evils to be shunned. The individualistic capitalism of today, precisely because it entrusts saving to the individual investor and production to the individual employer, presumes a stable measuring-rod of value, and cannot be efficient-perhaps can-not survive-without one It follows, he said, that the government should make price stability its primary policy goal. For, if we are to continue to draw the voluntary savings of the community into investments, we must make it a prime object of deliberate State policy that the standard of value, in terms of which they are expressed, should be kept stable Monetarist Aspects of the Tract The analysis of inflation contained in the Tract has much in common with the position taken by todays monetarists. Specifically, inflation is discussed within the context of an analytical-model that is remarkably monetarist in spirit, embodying such standard monetarist ingredients as (1) the quantity theory of money, (2) the concept of inflation as a tax on real money balances, (3) the monetary approach to exchange rate determination, and (4) the Fisherian distinction between real and nominal interest rates. The paragraphs below summarize Keynes views on these elements in order to demonstrate that he was not the stereotype nonmonetarist caricature of the textbooks. Quantity Theory of Money The Keynes of the Tract was an unequivocal ad-herent of the quantity theory. This theory, he said, is fundamental. Its correspondence with fact is not open to question [7; p. 61]. His own version of the theory as elucidated in the Tract is essentially the same as the modern monetarist version and embodies the following monetarist elements : (1) a money supply and demand theory of price level determination, (2) the notion of money stock exogeneity, implying money-to-price causality, (3) the concept of the demand for money as a stable function of a few key variables, and (4) a focus on the special role of price expectations in the money demand function. Regarding the money supply and demand theory of the price level, he said that two elements determine general prices and the value of money. First, the quantity, present and prospective, of [money] in circulation. Second, the amount of purchasing power which it suits the public to hold in that shape [7; p. xviii]. Elsewhere in the Tract he says that the price level depends on the currency policy. of the government and the currency habits of the people, in accordance with the quantity theory of money Finally, Keynes employed the quantity theory in his policy analysis, arguing (1) that inflation is caused by an excess supply of money, (2) that such monetary excess could stem from falls in money demand as well as from rises in money supply, (3) that the central bank possesses the power to prevent the latter and counteract the former, and (4) that it should employ this power to stabilize prices. For price stability he recommended deliberate countercyclical movements in the money supply to offset or nullify the procyclical impact of changes in money demand on prices. He thought that real money demand fluctuated with the state ofbusiness confidence, falling in booms, rising in slumps, and thereby amplifying cyclical movements of prices. The characteristic of the credit cycle, he said, consists in a tendency of [real cash balances] to diminish during the boom and increase during the depression [7; p. 67]. To counteract these he advocated deliberate monetary contraction in booms and monetary expansion in slumps. The time to deflate the supply of cash, he said, is when real balances are falling . . . and . . . the time to inflate the supply of cash is when real balances are rising, and not, as seems to be our present practice, the other way round [7; p. 149]. In so stating, he rejected the monetarist case for a fixed monetary growth rate rule (which he argued is bound to lead to unsteadiness of the price level when money demand fluctuates) in favor of discretionary monetary management [7; p. 69]. In the modern world of paper currency and bank credit, he declared, there is no escape from a managed currency [7; p. 136]. Note, however, that while he rejected the monetarist case for rules instead of discretion in the conduct of monetary policy, he did voice the modern monetarist complaint that discretionary monetary movements frequently tend to be procyclical rather than countcyclical. That is, he complained that the British monetary authorities had perversely engineered monetary expansions in booms when money demand was falling and monetary contraction in slumps when money demand was rising thereby aggravating rather than mitigating inflation and deflation. These -policy errors notwithstanding, however, he remained a strong advocate of discretionary monetary intervention in the pursuit of price stability. The second monetarist ingredient that Keynes enunciates in the Tract is the concept of inflation as a tax on real money balances. As noted by the late Harry Johnson, this inflation tax analysis constitutes an essential part of the quantity theory approach to inflation. Consistent with that approach, Keynes argues that inflation is a method of taxation which the government uses to secure the command over real resources, resources just as real as those obtained by [ordinary] taxation [7; p. 37]. What is raised by printing notes, he writes, is just as much taken from the public as is a beer duty or an income tax [7; p. 52]. Regarding the inflation tax he says that a government can live by this means when it can live by no other. It is the form of taxation which the public find hardest to evade and even the weakest government can enforce, when it can enforce nothing else [7; p. 37]. In discussing the inflation tax, Keynes stresses that it is a tax on cash balances. The burden of the tax, he says, falls on cashholders, i.e., on the holders of the original . . . notes, whose notes [after inflation] are worth . . . less than they were before. The inflation has amounted to a tax . . . on all holders of notes in proportion to their holdings. The burden of the tax is well spread, cannot be evaded, costs nothing to collect, and falls, in a rough sort of way, in proportion to the wealth of the victim. No wonder its superficial advantages have attracted Ministers of Finance [7; p. 39]. He next explains how inflationary money creation transfers rear resources from cashholders to the government. He notes that a given, say, 25 percent inflation rate requires an equivalent rate of rise of cash holdings just to maintain real money balances at desired levels. To accomplish this, cashholders cut expenditures on goods and services and add the unspent proceeds to money balances. The reduced private outlay for goods and services releases re-sources which the government acquires with newly issued money that is then added to private cash balances. In this way inflation enables the government to appropriate real resources from cashholders just as surely as if it had taken part of their earlier money balances and spent the proceeds on goods and services. How much the government gets depends upon the quantity of real balances the public wishes to hold when the inflation rate is 2.5 percent. Assuming the public desires real balances totaling $36 million, the governments tax take is 25 percent of that sum or $9 million. Or, as Keynes himself put it in discussing the effects of the hypothetical 25 percent inflation tax on real balances of $36 million, by the process of printing the additional notes the government has transferred to itself an amount equal to $9 million, just as successfully as if it had raised this sum in taxation [7 ; p. 39]. Keynes discussion of the inflation tax includes a sophisticated analysis of the optimal rate of inflation from the point of view of maximizing tax revenue. In this connection he makes four points. First, from the formula that tax yield equals tax rate times tax base, it follows that the yield of the inflation tax is the multiplicative product of the inflation rate (tax rate) and real cash balances (tax base), respectively. Second, the tax base is not invariant to the tax rate but falls when the latter rises. That is, when the government raises the tax rate the tax base tends to shrink as people seek to avoid the inflation tax by changing their habits and economizing on real money holdings. Were this not so, said Keynes, there would be no limit to the sums which the government could extract from the public by means of inflation [7; p. 42]. Third, because the tax base shrinks with rises in the tax rate, the government will realize more revenue from a tax rate rise only if it causes a less-than-proportionate fall in the base. A government has to remember, he said, that even if a tax is not prohibitive it may be unprofitable, and that a medium, rather than an extreme, imposition will yield the greatest gain [7 ; p. 43]. Fourth, it follows that there is one inflation rate that maximizes tax revenue and that occurs where the percentage increase in the tax rate equals the percentage shrinkage in the tax base, i.e., where the elasticity of real money demand with respect to the inflation rate is unity. Here is the concept of the tax-maximizing rate of inflation, that plays such a key role in the modern monetarist analysis of inflationary finance. A Treatise on Money (1930) If the Tract is famous for its quantity theory-inflation tax analysis, the Treatise is equally famous for its celebrated fundamental equations of prices and the corresponding distinction between income inflation and profit inflation.8 Constituting the central analytical core of the Treatise, the fundamental equations express price level increases as the sum of two components, namely (1) increases in profit per unit of output, and (2) increases in unit costs of production (chiefly labor costs). Of these two components of price change-namely changes in profit and changes in costs, respectively-Keynes labels the former profit inflation and the latter income inflation. Profit inflation occurs when prices are outrunning costs, leaving a large and growing margin for profit. By contrast, income inflation occurs when wages are rising as fast as prices thereby preventing profit growth. It should be noted that Keynes income inflation does not correspond to what today is called cost-push inflation, i.e., an exogenous rise in wages and hence prices caused, for example, by the exercise oftrade union monopoly power. Rather it is the induced endogenous result of an increased demand for labor and other resources generated by prior profit inflation.9 For, according to Keynes, most income inflations do not stem from autonomous (spontaneous) increases in wages caused by the powers and activities of trade unions [8, p. 151]. Instead they stem from profit-induced rises in the demand for (and hence prices of). labor and other factor resources. That is, a profit inflation. stimulates firms to expand output and hence their demand for factors of production. This leads, to a bidding up of factor prices that raises production costs and generates income inflation. This process continues until wages and other factor prices rise sufficiently to eliminate excess profits.10 Seen this way, income inflations. possess three distinctive features. They occur at the expense of profit inflations, eventually annihilating the latter. They need not cause a rise in prices since they are largely offset by compensating falls in profit inflation. Finally, they are a crucial part of the process that transforms inflation-engendered profits into costs and thereby terminates the. temporary stimulus to economic activity. Having developed the distinction between profit and income inflation, Keynes used it to analyze the effect of inflation on output and economic growth. Regarding these effects he reached two main conclusions. For a recent exposition of the fundamental equations and the corresponding concepts of income and profit inflation, see Patinkin [11; pp. 33-8]. What follows draws heavily from Patinkin. This point is stressed by Patinkin [11; p. 37]. 10 See Keynes [8; pp. 241-2] and Patinkin [11; pp. 37, 45]. First, only profit inflation has the power to stimulate output and growth. It is the teaching of this treatise, he said, that the wealth of nations is enriched, not during income inflations, but during profit inflations . . . at times, that is to say, when prices are running away from costs [9; p. 137]. More precisely, profit inflation stimulates both current and long-term real output. It stimulates current output by raising prices relative to wages thus lowering real wages and increasing employment. And it stimulates long-term real output by shifting income from wages to profit thereby permitting faster capital accumulation and a higher rate of economic growth. In short, the effects of profit inflation include the spirit of buoyancy and enterprise and the good employment which are engendered; but mainly the-rapid growth of capital wealth and the benefits obtained from this in succeeding years [9; p. 144]. These benefits, however, are possible only when prices are outrunning costs, leaving a substantial margin of profit to finance investment and growth. They cannot occur in income inflations where wages rise as fast as prices and thus annihilate the very profits. that constitute both the means and the inducement to economic growth. It follows that income inflation, unlike profit inflation, is incapable of enhancing growth. Second, what matters for investment and growth is how long it takes for profit inflation to give way to income inflation, and this depends on the speed of adjustment of wages to prices. If the interval is short and wages adjust rapidly to prices, then inflation will have little or no impact on capital formation and growth. But if the interval is long and wages adjust slowly to prices, then the stimulus may be considerable and profit inflation, in Keynes own words, becomes a most potent instrument for the increase of accumulated wealth [8; p. 267]. Regarding the interval, Keynes apparently felt that it had indeed been long in particular historical episodes-quite long enough, he said, to include (and, perhaps to contrive) the rise . . . of the greatness of a nation [9; p. 141]. In this connection he advanced the hypothesis that the early industrialization of England and France had been powered by profit inflation. It is unthinkable, he declared, that the difference between the amount of wealth in France and England in 1700 and the amount in 1500 could ever have been built up by thrift alone. The intervening profit inflation which created the modern world was surely worth while if we take the long view [9; p. 145]. Lest one wrongly conclude from the foregoing that Keynes of the Treatise was an out-and-out inflationist, three cautionary observations should be made. First, he was referring to gently rising prices and not to the rapid double-digit inflation that is unfortunately so common today. More precisely, he was referring to slow creeping secular inflation of no more than 1 to 2 percent per year. Today such mild inflation would be viewed as constituting virtual price stability. Second, his analysis of beneficial inflation refers chiefly to capital-poor preindustrial societies and not to wealthy modern capitalist economies.11 Most of his historical examples are taken from the pre-capitalist or early-capitalist era when western Europe was very poor in accumulated wealth and greatly in need of a rapid accumulation of capital [9; p. 145 and 8; p. 268]. Under these conditions it is conceivable that slowly-creeping profit inflation might indeed have spurred industrialization not only by diverting resources from consumption to capital formation, but also by breaking feudal bonds, stimulating enterprise, encouraging market-oriented activity, and widening the scope of the market. These latter benefits, however, are no longer available to wealthy, market-oriented modern capitalist economies that are more likely to find secular inflation a curse rather than a blessing. For this reason Keynes refrained from recommending even slightly inflationary policies for modern economies. Finally, it should be remembered that Keynes was referring to profit inflation characterized by prices persistently rising faster than wages and not to modern inflations in which wages sometimes rise ahead of prices or at least follow them without delay thereby wiping out the profits generated by the price increases.12 As previously mentioned, Keynes held that inflation stimulates growth only if wages lag substantially behind prices leaving a large and persistent margin of profit to finance capital formation. This wage lag, however, is hardly characteristic of modern inflations in which wages rise swiftly not only to restore real earnings eroded by past inflation but also to protect real earnings from expected future inflation. The clear implication is that Keynes would have opposed these modern inflations, which according to his analysis are income rather than profit inflations. Accordingly, it is not surprising that Keynes, at the end of a long passage extolling the historical accomplishments of profit inflation, nevertheless declared, I am not yet converted, taking everything into ac-11 On this point see Haberler [2; pp. 98-100]. 12 See Haberler [2; p. 99]. count, from a preference for a policy today which, whilst avoiding deflation at all costs, aims at the stability of purchasing power as its ideal objective [9; p. 145]. There is no reason to believe that he ever changed that position. On the contrary,. there is strong evidence that he remained a determined foe of inflation and an adamant proponent of price stability even to the extent of warning of the potential danger of inflation in 1937 when the unemployment rate was in excess of 10 percent of the labor force. Articles in The Times (1937) The most convincing evidence of his continuing strong opposition to inflation in the 1930s even after the publication of his celebrated General Theory, appears in four articles he wrote for The Times in early 1937.13 There, in discussing policies for dealing with unemployment at the business cycle peak of 1937, he made it abundantly clear that his primary concern was preventing inflation. In particular, he argued that the 1937 unemployment rate, although very high (indeed, as high as 12 ½ percent), was nevertheless at its minimum noninflationary level at which demand pressure must be curtailed to prevent inflation. Accordingly, he recommended a sharp cutback in government expenditure on the grounds that the economy was rapidly approaching the point where further increases in aggregate demand would be purely inflationary. I believe, he said,. that we are approaching, or have reached, the point where there is not much advantage in applying a further general stimulus at the centre [4; pp. 11, 44, 65]. In so stating, he identified the noninflationary full employment rate of unemployment (NIFERU) below which industrial bottlenecks frustrate the intended output and employment effects of aggregate demand expansion policy so that mainly prices rise.14 Beyond that point, he said, noninflationary reductions in joblessness could only be achieved by specific structural policies designed to lower the full employment rate of unemployment itself. As for the existing high level of that unemployment rate, he attributed it to structural rigidities in the 1. These articles are reprinted and discussed in Hutchison [4]. Unless otherwise noted, all references in this section are to Hutchison. 14 The NIFERU concept also appears in the General Theory where Keynes asserts that! beyond a certain point, structural impediments (a series of bottle-necks) would prevent the noninflationary expansion of output and employment long before full capacity is reached. At the bottleneck point any further increase in aggregate demand would, in his words, largely spend itself in raising prices, as distinct from employment [10; pp. 300-l]. British economy, in particular to a substantial mismatch between the location and skill mix of the labor force and the location and composition of demand. As he put it, the economic structure is unfortunately rigid and this rigidity prevented output and employment from responding to increases in aggregate demand so that only prices rise [4; pp. 11, 65-6]. It follows, he said, that to achieve noninflationary reductions in unemployment we are more in need today of a rightly distributed demand than of a greater aggregate demand [4 ; pp. 11, 66]. In other words, noninflationary reductions in unemployment cannot be obtained by expansionary aggregate demand-management policies but rather require a different technique [4; pp. 11, 14, 44, 66]. To this end he advocated specific structural policies to reduce unemployment on the grounds that noninflationary reductions in unemployment could only be achieved via measures that eradicate structural rigidities and lower the equilibrium unemployment rate itself. In so arguing, he foreshadowed by 30 years the modern monetarist concept of the natural rate of unemployment. He also refuted the popular contention that he was an inflationist who advocated full employment at any cost. That is, his 1937 articles amply demonstrate that, far from being an inflationist, his main consideration was preventing inflation-even at a time when the u

New England vs. the Chesapeake :: essays research papers

Hello my name is Alma Castro, I am 16 years old and I am now attending Skyline High School for the Child Care Cluster. I live with my mom, dad, 1 sister (Cynthia who is 14), and 2 brothers (Alfredo 12 and Eduardo 9) in a house in Oak Cliff. My house is about 5 minutes from downtown Dallas. My family and I enjoy going to the movies, the park, and going out to eat as a family. But this is only the beginning of what I am about to tell you about my life. I was born on October 25, 1988 in the Mexico in the City of Juarez. I only lived in Mexico for about 3 years but while I lived there my mom said I gave her the biggest scare of her life. She said that when I was about a year and six months I got out of the house and went to a neighbor’s house to play without her knowing. When she started to look for me and couldn’t find me she got scared, then all my uncles noticed and so they started to help her. She said that after looking for about an hour I came out from that house like nothing had happened. Then on June 20, 1991 my little sister was born. My mom said that when my little sister was born I became very responsible and helpful. She also said that I was very calm and happy all the time. Then in June 1992 we moved to Dallas with my aunt and 3 older cousins. Living with my aunt was all right we had our good and bad times; we were all bunched up in a small house in Duncanville. A couple of months later we moved to a bigger house in the same neighborhood. Our next-door neighbors were very nice they really made us feel welcomed. Living at this house I started preschool. I went to a school that was only 4 blocks from the house, so my mom use to take my 2 younger cousins, our 2 neighbors (who by the way are twins), and me to school walking. I remember that when we all go home from school we would all go outside and play in the backyard. Then in May 27, 1993 my brother Alfredo was born so my dad decided to get a house of our own.

William Blake Essay -- Biography William Blake Papers

William Blake William Blake was born in 1757 during a time when Romanticism was on the rise. Romantic poets of this day and age, living in England, experienced changes from a wealth-centered aristocracy to a modern industrial nation where power shifted to large-scale employers thus leading to the enlargement of the working class. Although Blake is seen as a very skillful writer his greatest successes were his engravings taught to him by a skilled sculpture. Blake differed from other poets in that he never received a formal education. His only education consisted of the arts, and therefore he enrolled in the Royal Academy of the Arts around the age of twelve. It was only in his spare time that he showed any interest in poetry. At the age of twenty-four he married Catherine Boucher who in fact had been illiterate at the time but Blake soon taught her to read. From there he pursued teaching in drawing and painting, illustrated books, and engraved designs made by other artists. It was only after many failures at the attempt of public recognition, and after years of isolation, that Blake had experienced his first audience. It was a small group of painters that admired his works and listened to every one of his talks. Blake is best known for intertwining his artistic talent and poetic flow. Proof of such success is seen in "Songs of Innocence" and "Songs of Experience", in which almost every poem has been engraved and beautifully sculpted onto a plaque. These two sets of poems represented what Blake believed to be the "two contrary states of the human soul". Blake was considered a social critic of his own time and often thought of himself as a prophet. His criticism was a reflection of his own country and of an era in time that... ...rth to awake, he is asking not to physically wake up but to really open your eyes to the world around you and see what you have become. See how materialistic and self-centered you have become. He says not to turn away because turning away won’t solve your problems only surpress them for the time being. The poem is drawn in a night’s sky to give the Earth the opportunity to wake up with the new morning.http://members.aa.net/~urizen/experience/soe02.html When Blake combined the two titles "Songs of Innocence" and "Songs of Experience" he added a phrase that sums up the meaning of the two. He added "Shewing the Two Contrary States of the Human Soul", these two states being childhood and adulthood. Childhood represents Innocence and adulthood represents Experience and what we do with our lives comes from childhood imagination and adulthood determination and judgment.

?Letter to Americans? by E. P. Thompson :: essays research papers

â€Å"Letter to Americans† by E. P. Thompson Dated back in 1986, â€Å"Letter to Americans† is as if it’s written in the last three-four years. In it E. P. Thompson explains why he is anti-American in his beliefs. First off, he starts with that he is in two minds about this state of his. Even his friends doubt he is anti-American, thinking he is joking. We also read how the author traces American ancestry on his mother’s side- he goes back to his great-great-grandfather who lived in Lincoln times. Most of his ancestors are white Protestants from the upper class. Second of all, Thompson presents his idea (which he defends throughout almost the whole text) that â€Å"military† troubles had started a long time ago. He gives examples with the Middle East, Ireland and even England. One of the strongest parts is the questions-passage: the sender asks Americans what made them change, why the national-exaltation†¦ He doesn’t look for the answers. Terrorism is the next problem that is discussed in â€Å"Letter to Americans†. Thompson gives an interesting example with the death of an American serviceman which was highly noticed and at the same time the death of sixty-three other lives (non-American) is left almost unmentioned. E. P. Thompson doubts the moral of war. Or he doubts the moral of anti-terrorist war. In the next lines we read how disappointed he is that he’s half-American. But he also doesn’t like being half-English after the â€Å"heroine† is â€Å"walking tall†- Margaret Thatcher is accepted as a betrayer of national honour. The author doesn’t forget to mention the relationship between USA and NATO. He thinks that Americans welcome NATO as a weapon for America’s affairs, not of the world’s. In his final words, it is suggested that either Europe should invite USA to leave NATO or Europe should expel America from it. It is somehow strange for today’s reader to find out that the situation with America’s foreign affairs hasn’t changed much. As some clever people have said, â€Å"The History book on the shelf is always repeating itself.† Even after nineteen years, Americans think of themselves as citizens of the strongest nation in the world. Even after the September the 11th. Even after Iraq. And Afghanistan. The next worst thing that could happen to the new American history was Bush’s re-election. I doubt so many American people are that dumb†¦ I lived in USA and most of the people I met there don’t like his deeds.

Consumer negotiation Essay

Introduction Negotiations have a significant impact on the savings of a customer during the business relationship. The authors of this article assume that the transfer price lies between the manufactures production costs and the maximum retail price and that the negotiations occur in an incomplete and the producer is not sure on the consumer price. Every negotiator has the ability to convince the other that the surplus is smaller than it real is. The article also uses the game-theoretic model (Perry & Grossman 1986)  Ã‚   to predict the outcomes and behavior in a negotiation scenario.   In both experiments described by this article fail to describe the bargaining outcomes and behaviors since the players took too much time to agree.   The authors conclude that the negotiation mechanisms depend on the economic characteristics of the negotiation situation and that social and individual contexts influence the outcome of the consumer negotiation. References Bazerman, M. H. (2001). Consumer research for consumers.  Journal of Consumer Research,  27(4), 499-504.

Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) Practices and the Performance of a Nigerian Small and Medium Size Enterprise (SME).

entryThe sh be of sm each and medium-size enterprises (SMEs) to the scotch ontogenesis and festering has been enormous. This contribution is meaning(a) for both(prenominal) the developed and underdeveloped world. M both governments receipt the fact that SMEs play a signifi raftt fiber in the maturation and development of their economies. Consequently, a estimate of government investiture take tos atomic number 18 gear towards fostering the increase and development of local SMEs.The institution of policies geared towards the facilitation and empowerment of SMEs as well as improving the mathematical operation of SMEs re uncomplicated(prenominal)s a major objective of many sparing policy makers and governments. In addition, international economic and pecuniary bodies such as the IMF, piece Bank, the European Investment Bank (EIB) and the global Financial Corporation (IFC) flummox invested intemperately in making SMEs robust and vivacious in maturation countries . Furthermore, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in ontogenesis countries such as Nigeria give up sedulous advocacy and capacity-building campaigns to promote the growth of SMEs. disrespect the importance accorded to SMEs as well as their contribution to economic growth, Onugu (2005) struggles that the capital punishment of SMEs in Nigeria has been below expectations. Unlike SMEs in otherwise countries, the contribution of Nigerian SMEs to economic growth has not been real impressive (Onogu, 2005). side by side(p) from its independence, the Federal government of Nigeria has invested significant sums of property to promote entrepreneurial and small assembly line development projects (Mambula, 1997, 2002). However, burdens from these projects retain not been precise impressive. In edict words, most of these projects capture often been unable to yield their anticipate returns. Despite the countrys endowment with raw materials and other natural imaginations, thither h as been little progress towards the development of the manufacturing sector, which could put on increased the production of value added products thereby substituting imports, increasing exports and increasing piece of conk emerge (Mambula, 1997, 2002).Business failure often comes as a result of a number of factors. This could be as a result of poor customer service, poor anxiety and poor mankind imaging heed. bit the poor performance of SMEs in Nigeria can be attributed to a number of factors, man alternative heed could be a major factor in de edgeine this poor performance. homophile beings options are a principal source of economic growth. the like other picks, valet resources require effective and efficient utilisation so as to ensure maximum contribution is achieved from them. close to 50 per cent of people work in small and medium sized enterprises.Despite this high proportion of piece resources in SMEs, most studies that matter military personnel resource counselling have pore on bountiful(p) corporations with very curb attention to SMEs. Moreover, most studies on the practices of gentlemans gentleman resource management have been carried out in the developed world with very particular attention paid to developing countries like Nigeria. This understand is one of the hardly a(prenominal) studies that focus on the management of tender resources in SMEs in a developing country. The country that has been chosen for the study is Nigeria. The melodic theme examines the factors that stupor the practices of sympathetic resource management in an SME in Nigeria and how these practices can affect the performance of the SME in particular and its contribution to the overall growth of the economy as a whole.Objectives of the Study The objective of the study is to examine the SHRM practices of an SME in Nigeria. The study go away also examine how those practices affect the performance of the SME and provide policy implications of the findings for future outline development. look for QuestionsThe news report go out be providing answers to the undermentioned questionsWhat are the strategic human resource management practices of the SME How do these practices affect the performance of the SME What are the implications for future development of strategicalalalal human resource management practices at the SMEResearch OutlineThe paper is going to follow the hobby areas Section one ordain secrecy the introduction member 2 pull up stakes be dealing with the publications recap section 3 provide be discussing the methodology and describing the selective information section 4 will provide the results and abridgment and section 5 will present conclusions and recommendations. literary productions Review strategical human resource management (SHRM) practices refer to those activities that are particular(prenominal)ally developed, executed and useed on a deliberate alignment to a squiffys strategy (Huselid et al., 1997). The phrase strategic human resource management is an recital that people in the firm are regarded as strategic resources (i.e human capital) that mustiness be managed and leveraged when implementing and executing the strategy of the firm. In early years, efforts made to develop a conceptual framework on strategic human resource management were ground on the assumption that in order to promote human behaviour that would actualize the strategic objectives of the firm, the firm had to implement specific human resource management practices (Fisher, 1989 Schuler and Jackson, 1989 Snell, 1992).A strategic draw near shot to human resource management is an come up that links the human resource management policies with the strategic objectives of the firm. at that place has been significant debate over the term SHRM as has been the fictional character for human resource management (HRM). Many questioners argue that SHRM lacks conceptual clarity (e.g., Bamberger and Meshoulam, 2000). Three competing frameworks on SHRM have emerged the adventure, commonplace and configurational perspectives (Miles and Snow, 1984 Schuler and Jackson, 1987 Delery and Doty, 1996 Pfeffer, 1998 Youndt et al., 1996 Boxall and Purcell, 2000, 2008). According to the universal perspective, all HR practices in all firms have a positive impact on firm performance (Delery and Doty, 1996). The configurational perspective suggests that firm performance depends on unique HR practices while the contingency perspective suggests that a firms HR practices are a function of its strategy (Miles and Snow, 1984 Schuler and Jackson, 1987). A number of studies have tested the different frameworks and found inappropriate results. For example, Youndt et al. (1996) and Chang and Huang (2005) argue in favour of the contingency perspective while Tackeuchi et al. (2003) favour the configurational perspective.The frameworks suggested in a higher place are mostly pertinent for large orga nisations. Little effort has been utilise towards the development of SHRM in SMEs. For example, Saini and Budhwar (2008) in a study of SHRM practices in SMEs in India argue that bounded rationality tends to constrain the willingness to implement innovative HR practices in SMEs in India because most owners of SMEs tend to believe that they are doing their utmost best. Barber et al (1999) look on that HRM practices that work well in large organisations do not work justly in small firms. As a result, Heneman and Tansky (2002) stresses the need to develop different HRM models for SMEs kinda than simply extending existing models that are worthy for large organisations to SMEs. The literature on Human resource management in SMEs suggests that a strategic attack to HRM in SMEs is further to be developed. Conceptual models that relate human resource management practices in SMEs to the strategic capabilities of these organisations need to be developed in order to enable SMEs achieve t he abundant benefits of their human resources. As can be observed, most of the studies of HRM practices in SMEs have been limit to SMEs in Western Europe, U.S.A and India with very limited attention given to Africa in universal and Nigeria in particular. In the light of the above limitations, this study aims at contributing to the literature by studying the SHRM practices of SMEs in Nigeria. The study does not intend to test any hypothesis. Rather it intends to focus on providing an in-depth summary and discussion of the HRM practices of a Nigerian SME.Research rules and DataResearch Methods are the approaches taken to achieve the objectives of a research project (Saunders et al., 2009). There are two main approaches to research including the inductive and deductive approaches. The inductive approach is an approach that aims at developing testable hypotheses while the deductive approach focuses on testing existing hypotheses. The inductive approach can use a wizard fact st udy to multiple case studies while the deductive approach depends on the use of multiple cases. Moreover, the inductive approach can use either qualitative or quantitative methods whereas the deductive approach relies heavily on the use of large data sets and quantitative research methods.The inductive approach is advantageous over the deductive approach in that it does not verbalise its results to all cases. It aims at providing an in-depth analysis of a small number of cases. Therefore, it is the approach that will be use in this study.In other to achieve the objective of this study, this paper will use a case study approach. In order to do this, a Nigerian-based SME will be selected. An in-depth analysis of its SHRM practices will be examined and related to its performance. In order to gain detailed sagaciousness of the approaches, the interpretive phenomenological Analysis (IPA) will be used to gain an in-depth analysis of the HRM practices of the SME. The Interpretative phen omenological analysis (IPA) is an experimental qualitative approach to research in psychology and the human, health and social sciences (Smith et al., 2009). The human resource practices that will be investigated include recruitment, selection, training, remuneration, leave of absence, interpersonal communication, sick pay, and promotion. The practices of these variables will be analysed and an evaluation of how they affect the performance of the SME will be conducted. The performance measures that will be used include profitability, liquidity, management efficiency and leverage ratios. The ratios will be analysed in proportion to the SHRM practices identified along with the Nigerian economic environment in which the SME is based.DataThe research will use both primary and secondary data. Data for the SHRM practices will in the main be primary data. This data will be collected using look questionnaires issued to the employees of the SME and interviews conducted with key manageme nt staff. Performance data will be collected from the financial records of the SME. Data on the performance measures will be gathered from the financial records of the SME.ReferencesBoxall, P., & Purcell, J. (2000). strategic human resource management Where have we come from and where should we be goingInternational Journal of solicitude Reviews, 2(2), 183?203.Boxall, P., & Purcell, J. (2008). Strategy and Human mental imagery trouble. Hampshire Palgrave MacMillan.Chang,W. J. A., & Huang, T. C. (2005). kin between strategic human resource management and firm performance A contingency perspective. International Journal of Manpower, 26(5), 434?449.Delery, J. E., & Doty, D. H. (1996). Modes of theorizing in strategic human resource management Tests of universalistic, contingency. academy of direction Journal, 39(4), 802?835.Huselid, M.A., S.E. Jackson, and R.S. Schuler. 1997. Technical and Strategic Human Resource Management intensity level as Determinants of Firm Performance, A cademy of Management Journal 40(199), 171-188.Miles, R. E., & Snow, C. C. (1984). Designing strategic human resources systems. Organizational Dynamics, 13(1), 36?52.Schuler, R.S. and S.A. Jackson. 1989. Determinants of Human Resource Management Priorities and Implications for Industrial Relations, Journal of Management 15(1) 89-99.Snell, S.A. 1992. Control Theory in Strategic Human Resource Management The Mediating set of Administrative Information, Academy of Management, Journal 35(2), 292-327.Schuler, R. S., & Jackson, S. E. (1987). Linking free-enterprise(a) strategies with human resource management practices. Academy of Management Executive, 1(3), 207?219.Pfeffer, J. (1998). Seven practices of successful organizations. atomic number 20 Management Review, 40(2), 96?124.Onugu, B. A. N. (2005) Small and specialty Enterprises (SMEs) in Nigeria Problems and Prospects, St. Clements UniversitySmith, J. A., Flowers, P., Larkin, M. (2009) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Theo ry, Method and Research, Sage Publications.Heneman, R. L., & Tansky, J. W. (2002). Human resource management models for entrepreneurial opportunity Existing familiarity and new directions. In J. Katz, & T. M. Welbourne (Eds.), Managing people in entrepreneurial organizations, vol. 5 (pp. 5582). capital of The Netherlands JAI Press.Barber, A. E., Wesson, M. J., Roberson, Q. M., & Taylor, M. S. (1999). A tale of two descent markets Organizational size and its effects on hiring practices and job search behavior. Personnel Psychology, 52, 841867.Saunders M, Lewis P and Thornhill A (2009) Research Methods for Business Studies, fifth edition, Prentice Hall FT HarlowSaini, D. S., Budhwar, P. S. (2008) Managing the human resource in Indian SMEs The role of indigenous realities, Journal of World Business, mickle 43, No. 4, Pages 417-434Takeuchi, N., Wakabayashi, M., & Chen, Z. (2003). The strategic HRM configuration for rivalrous advantage Evidence from Japanese firms in China and Taiwan , Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 20(4), 447?480.